Aristarchus follow-up

Aristarchus in one sweep, an orbital swath ultimately stitched into a four-orbit mosaic, shows one of the most photographed of the complex lunar craters in unusually muted tones. Because Aristarchus is unusually bright, the reason it is most often cited as the reported location of Transitory Lunar Phenomena, fast LROC low-orbit photography allows an unwashed-out appreciation of its topographic detail. Full-width strip of LROC Wide Angle Camera (WAC) observation M162622850CE, (604nm), LRO orbit 9099, June 13, 2011; resolution 56.85 meters at a morning angle of incidence of 79° from 40.77 km [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

Strip from the four sequential LROC WAC orbital observations mosaic shows young Aristarchus nested on the southeastern heights of Aristarchus plateau, together with the Cobra Head and much older, mare-flooded companion Herodotus to the west. The youngest mare surface on the Moon yet identified, estimated to be a mere 1.1 billion years old, is situated at the southern end of this field of view. Despite it's relative youth, that surface is older than Copernican-age Aristarchus, so the crater cannot be its source [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

A full-resolution crop from a full-disk 33 image mosaic of the Moon, September 25, 2008, shows Aristarchus and its plateau at local late afternoon [Astronominsk].

Southside, Aristarchus crater (December 25, 2012)
Oblique Narrow Angle on Aristarchus Cobra Head (October 9, 2012)
Debris Channels (August 8, 2012)

LROC's new Global Lunar Topography

Full hemisphere example of the newly released Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) Wide Angle Camera (WAC) color-shaded relief of the lunar farside, derived from their global Digital Terrain Model. View the larger image accompanying their November 16 announcement, HERE [NASA/GSFC/DLR/Arizona State University].

Mark Robinson
Principal Investigator
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC)
Arizona State University

Global topography -- a boon to lunar scientists and explorers around the world! Today the LROC team releases Version 1 of the Wide Angle Camera (WAC) topographic map of the Moon. This amazing map shows you the ups and downs over nearly the entire Moon, at a scale of 100 meters across the surface, and 20 meters or better vertically. Despite the diminutive size of the WAC (it fits in the palm of one's hand), it images nearly the entire Moon every month. Every month? Yes! Redundant data? No! Each month the Moon's lighting changes, so the WAC methodically builds up a record of how different rocks reflect light under different conditions, and adds to the LROC library of stereo observations. The WAC really is the little camera that could! It was built by Malin Space Science Systems (MSSS) in San Diego CA, and is very similar to another MSSS camera (MARCI) now in orbit around Mars.

Left: LROC Wide Angle Camera attached to a test setup shortly before mounting on the spacecraft. Right: WAC being handed up to engineers for integration with LRO. View the released image HERE (photos M. Robinson).

The WAC has a pixel scale of about 75 meters, and with an average altitude of 50 km, a WAC image swath is 70 km wide across the ground-track. Because the equatorial distance between orbits is about 30 km, there is nearly complete orbit-to-orbit stereo overlap all the way around the Moon, every month. Using digital photogrammetric techniques, a terrain model was computed from this stereo overlap. The new topographic model was constructed from 69,000 WAC stereo models. Due to persistent shadows near the poles it is not possible to create a complete WAC stereo map at the very highest latitudes. Fortunately, the LRO Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) excels at characterizing the topography of the poles. Since the LRO orbits converge at the poles and LOLA ranges to the surface with its own lasers, LOLA provides a very high resolution topographic model of the poles. This LOLA map can fill in the WAC "hole at the pole".

Detail from WAC topography model, shades of gray represent elevation. Darker values are lower terrain and brighter values are higher points. (Image center is near 19.1°N, 175.3°E) View the much larger demonstration image HERE [NASA/GSFC/DLR/Arizona State University].

How is a digital topographic map created from stereo images? The WAC stereo images were compared one against another by pattern-matching a moving box of pixels until the best fit was found between two images with different viewing angles. Best fit pixel positions are combined with the LRO orbit position and the WAC viewing angles to define two 3D rays (lines of sight). The intersection point of these rays defines the location and the elevation of the point on the surface. Since the correlation box is bigger than 100 meters, surface details at the 100-meter scale are not fully resolved in a single stereo pair. However, each 100 meter square has an average of 26 stereo points within it (for a planet-wide total of 100 billion points), which helps to sharpen the elevation estimate. The resolution, in a formal sense, is probably close to 300 meters, and the accuracy of the elevations is estimated to be about 10 to 20 meters. This new map is called the Global Lunar DTM 100 m topographic model, or “GLD100”,  and covers 79°S to 79°N latitudes, 98.2% of the entire lunar surface. The WAC topography was produced by LROC team members at the German Aerospace Center (DLR).

Color-shaded relief detail of the same region in the figure above. View the spectacularly detailed and larger release image HERE [NASA/GSFC/DLR/Arizona State University].

Shaded relief images can be created from the GLD100 by illuminating the surface from a given Sun direction and elevation above the horizon, and to convey an absolute sense of height the resulting grayscale pixels are painted with colors that represent the altitude. Visualizations like these allow scientists to view the surface from very different perspectives, providing a powerful tool for interpreting the geologic processes that have shaped the Moon

.

And the LROC WAC Global monochrome mosaic also corresponding to same area, with the accompanying larger and more detailed release image available HERE [NASA/GSFC/DLR/Arizona State University].

The large irregularly shaped Buys-Ballot crater, seen in the three images above, is about 47 km by 62 km. The WAC topography shows the flat floor to lie some 3100 meters below the western rim and 4600 m below the eastern rim. The central peak rises about 800 m above the floor. For comparison the width and depth of this crater are larger than those of the Grand Canyon, AZ.

Topographic profile (highly exaggerated) across Buys-Ballot crater, note the flat floor [NASA/GSFC/DLR/Arizona State University].

Why is the floor of the crater so flat? The WAC mosaic holds an important clue -- note how dark the floor is. On the Moon, dark (low albedo) material is typically basalt, which is dark because it is relatively rich in iron (mafic minerals). On the Moon, basalts are erupted as very hot lavas, making them very fluid, thus they tend to spread out and flood local topographic lows. From the topography and WAC image data, one can make a confident interpretation that the floor of this unusual crater is most likely flooded with basalt. But why such a small eruption? Most flood basalts on the nearside cover vast expanses of lunar terrain, but why not on the farside? Another mystery for future lunar explorers to unravel!

The area shown here is only a tiny portion of the Moon: see if you can find Buys-Ballot in the full resolution hemispheric view.

What improvements can be made over this first release of the LROC WAC GLD100? The current model incorporates the first year of stereo imaging, and there is another year of data that can be added to the solution. These additional stereo images will not only improve the sharpness (resolution) of the model but also fill in very small gaps that exist in the current map. The LROC team has made small improvements to the camera distortion model, and the LOLA team has improved our knowledge of the spacecraft position over time. These next generation steps will further improve the accuracy of Version 2 of the LROC GLD100 topographic model of the Moon.

Explore the new LROC GLD100!

And here are Direct links to color shaded relief visualizations (relatively large *.tif image files*):



Orthographic projection centered at 0° longitude and 0° latitude.
Orthographic projection centered at 60° longitude and 0° latitude.
Orthographic projection centered at 120° longitude and 0° latitude.
Orthographic projection centered at 180° longitude and 0° latitude.
Orthographic projection centered at 240° longitude and 0° latitude.
Orthographic projection centered at 300° longitude and 0° latitude.
Orthographic projection centered at 0° longitude and 90° latitude.
Orthographic projection centered at 0° longitude and -90° latitude.

Color scale legend for LROC Color Shaded Relief. View the full size graphic, HERE [NASA/ GSFC/ DLR/ Arizona State University].

*NOTE: OS X (and many other) users may prefer opening these large TIFF files directly within a browser. Please select and "Save" to local storage media, allowing the option of opening these files in an image viewer or editing program.

Moon in UV sheds light on maturation and materials

One of four "enigmatic" domes singled out in a segment of an LROC Wide Angle Camera (WAC) color mosaic released at the European Planetary Science Congress and the American Astronomical Society's Division for Planetary Sciences on October 7. Long suspected of being a separate species from more common volcanic features, like those of the Marius Hills, the Darney C 3 domes ("D" on the second image following) on the border of Mare Cognitum with Oceanus Procellarum (11.22°S, 333.5°E) may, instead, be fragments of a long obliterated lunar crust or islands, once high places now nearly buried  by the flows that created the nearside's basins. LRO orbits 4559 and 4560, June 22, 2010; from 44.9 km altitude, resolution ~ 62.5 meters per pixel [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

Editors Note: Fairly reliable elemental maps of the Moon have been around since the Apollo era, becoming more detailed as planetary scientists continue to comb through data obtained by Clementine (1994) and Lunar Prospector (1998-1999) (along with those of the flotilla of probes dispatched by ESA, Japan, India and China). The highest-resolution direct observations of the Moon are still being swept up by the record-shattering Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, now well into a third year in low lunar orbit and only beginning to show a degree of age after the loss of Mini-RF operations and a redundant gyro this past year.

In December LRO will be raised to a more stable 100 km-high orbit to save fuel after orbiting the Moon 11,000 times since arriving in lunar orbit in June 2009, and long after becoming the longest lasting lunar mission as well, returning more data than all previous Deep Space missions put together.

LRO teams continue to use earlier abaselines to map confirm the abundance of a variety of strategic elements on the lunar surface, and in unprecedented detail.A promise made for delivering such comprehensive high-resolution color maps and elemental surveys of the Moon is being fulfilled.

What follows is "value-added" detail from a widely-circulated press release about presentations made by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) investigators to a joint meeting of the European Planetary Science Congress and the American Astronomical Society's Division for Planetary Sciences on October 7. Along with the elusive original demonstration images we've added a number of mosaics of images already released to the Planetary Data System.

From a partial map of the nearside lunar surface centered on the colorful contact zone bordering Mare Serenitatis and Mare Tranquillitatis, combining observations in visible and ultraviolet wavelengths and showing a 'treasure trove' of areas rich in titanium oxide. Titanium is a valuable element, key to helping scientists unravel mysteries of the Moon's interior. LROC investigators Mark Robinson and Brett Denevi presented the results at the European Planetary Science Congress and the American Astronomical Society's Division for Planetary Sciences on October 7. The relative blue color of the Tranquillitatis mare is due to a higher abundances of the titanium-bearing mineral ilmenite. Direct study of samples gathered by Cernan and Schmitt (Taurus Littrow, Apollo 17, December 1972) aided in establishing baselines for comparable elemental signatures. Enhanced color formed as 689 nm filter image in red, 415 nm in green, and 321 nm in blue. See the full size demonstration image HERE [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

Titanium relative abundance mapped
by Clementine (1994).

From: EPSC/ASA Joint Meeting 2011 Press Notice - October 7
 

Subtly Shaded Map of Moon Reveals Titanium Treasure Troves

"Looking up at the Moon, its surface appears painted with shades of grey -- at least to the human eye. But with the right instruments, the Moon can appear colorful," said Mark Robinson, of Arizona State University. "The maria appear reddish in some places and blue in others. Although subtle, these color variations tell us important things about the chemistry and evolution of the lunar surface. They indicate the titanium and iron abundance, as well as the maturity of a lunar soil."

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) Wide Angle Camera (WAC) is imaging the surface in seven different wavelengths at a resolution of between 100 and 400 metres per pixel. Specific minerals reflect or absorb strongly certain parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, so the wavelengths detected by LROC WAC help scientists better understand the chemical composition of the lunar surface.

Robinson and his team previously developed a technique using Hubble Space Telescope images to map titanium abundances around a small area centred on the Apollo 17 landing site. Samples around the site spanned a broad range of titanium levels.  By comparing the Apollo data from the ground with the Hubble images, the team found that the titanium levels corresponded to the ratio of ultraviolet to visible light reflected by the lunar soils.

“Our challenge was to find out whether the technique would work across broad areas, or whether there was something special about the Apollo 17 area,” said Robinson.

Robinson’s team constructed a mosaic from around 4000 LRO WAC images collected over one month. Using the technique they had developed with the Hubble imagery, they used the WAC ratio of the brightness in the ultraviolet to visible light to deduce titanium abundance, backed up by surface samples gathered by Apollo and Luna missions.

The new map shows that in the mare titanium abundances range from about one percent to a little more than ten percent. In the highlands, everywhere TiO2 is less than one percent. The new titanium values match those measured in the ground samples to about one percent.

From a full-resolution LROC Wide Angle Camera three-color composite (566 nm filter image in red, 360 nm in green, and 321 nm in blue), "Figure 2" accompanying the October 7 press release, highlighting regions with varying mare compositions and certain of the more "enigmatic" small volcanic domes. The area shown is a familiar nearside territory, west longitude from around 340° to 320° and from the equatorial landing sites of Apollo 12 and 14 down to 21° south. View the full size image accompanying the October 7 press release HERE  [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

Designated by the letter "H" in 'Figure 2' immediately above is 'the Helmet," apparently the official designation for the enigmatic dome previously known as Agatharchides 1 (and "the Fireman's Hat) for the associated crater group, may be an island of ancient crust 60 km wide floating northeast of Mare Humorum (18.2°S, 328.9°E). Mosaic of three LROC WAC observations in the 643 nm band, January 27, 2011 [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

“We still don’t really understand why we find much higher abundances of titanium on the Moon compared to similar types of rocks on Earth.  What the lunar titanium-richness does tell us is that the interior of the Moon had less oxygen when it was formed, knowledge that geochemists value for understanding the evolution of the Moon,” said Robinson.

Lunar titanium is mostly found in the mineral ilmenite, a compound containing iron, titanium and oxygen. Future miners living and working on the Moon could break down ilmenite to liberate these elements.  In addition, Apollo data shows that titanium-rich minerals are more efficient at retaining particles from the solar wind, such as helium and hydrogen. These gases would also provide a vital resource for future human inhabitants of lunar colonies.

“The new map is a valuable tool for lunar exploration planning. Astronauts will want to visit places with both high scientific value and a high potential for resources that can be used to support exploration activities. Areas with high titanium provide both – a pathway to understanding the interior of the Moon and potential mining resources,” said Denevi, from John Hopkins University.

Based on it's spectacular rays and highly reflective deeper anatomy Giordano Bruno (35.9°N, 102.8°E) had once been believed the result of a very recent event, perhaps even a famous 12th century phenomena witnessed and recorded by European monks. Though that theory fell by the wayside some time ago, LROC Wide Angle Camera UV imagery has shown optical maturity by solar UV radiation occurs more rapidly than previously understood. In the LROC WAC UV mosaic below, more or less matching the area shown above of global lunar albedo mosaic from the 1994 Clementine mission, the wider area affected by the G. Bruno event is far less dramatic [NASA/DOD/VMA6].

On the other hand, in the LROC global UV mosaic (Figure 3 from the Oct. 7 press release: Color Ratio 321 nm / 415 nm), the full extent of the Goddard/Mare Marginis albedo swirl, contrasts with it's background quite well. The coincident crustal magnetic anomaly is antipodal to Mare Orientale, which, though the youngest of the classic impact basins is still estimated at over 3 billion years old. This image adds evidence to the theory that lunar swirls associated with fossil magnetic fields must result from a more dynamic phenomena than merely deflection of solar radiation by magnetic fields. Shedding and retaining charged sub-micron regolith must, in no small part, be linked with the Moon's "daily" dusty atmospheric cycles [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

The new maps also shed light on how space weather changes the lunar surface. Over time, the lunar surface materials are altered by the impact of charged particles from the solar wind and high-velocity micrometeorite impacts. Together these processes work to pulverize rock into a fine powder and alter the surface’s chemical composition and hence its colour.  Recently exposed rocks, such as the rays that are thrown out around impact craters, appear bluer and have higher reflectance than more mature soil. Over time this ‘young’ material darkens and reddens, disappearing into the background after about 500 million years.

“One of the exciting discoveries we’ve made is that the effects of weathering show up much more quickly in ultraviolet than in visible or infrared wavelengths.  In the LROC ultraviolet mosaics, even craters that we thought were very young appear relatively mature. Only small, very recently formed craters show up as fresh regolith exposed on the surface,” said Robinson.

SCIENCE CONTACTS:

Mark Robinson 
Arizona State University
School of Earth and Space Exploration
E-mail: robinson@ser.asu.edu
http://ser.sese.asu.edu/
Brett Denevi
The Johns Hopkins University
Applied Physics Laboratory
Brett.Denevi@jhuapl.edu 

Figure 4 from the October 7 press release compares the familiar Reiner Gamma swirl in the visual with the UV (right), as seen in LROC WAC mosaics. Nearside swirls differ from those on the farside. They are fewer and none are linked with basin-forming impacts on the opposite side of the Moon. The beauty of the swirl at Reiner Gamma and the much more vague bright albedo of the Descartes Formation are associated with the strongest crustal magnetic anomalies yet mapped. Reiner Gamma is almost certainly linked geologically with the Marius Hills. Regardless, in ultra-violet, Reiner y seems too fresh and too superficial for an airless body whose surface is gardened every 2 million years. The Moon's dusty surface may be migrating very slowly, but it is surely on the move [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

A seventy kilometer-wide field of view LROC WAC mosaic swept up during two orbital passes last May. The yellow box show the roughly 2.5 km-wide Narrow Angle Camera field of view shown in the last image, below. Something is allowing the radiation-linked maturation of lunar regolith in the dark lanes of Reiner Gamma and continually keeping the dust at the surface of its bright albedo fresh and optically (and UV) "immature." The intense crustal magnetism closely incidental with this very long but very superficial swirl anomaly may be linked to sub-surface flows of melt and remelted materials originating in the Marius Hills, where the swirl has a clear terminus, 200 kilometers to the northeast. Though the local magnetic field may be intense enough to refract solar radiation it is insufficient at repelling more energetic (or, admittedly less frequent) cosmic rays. Though less frequent, the latter would have had sufficient time to mature the brighter regions over the last 900 million years. Instead, it was proposed in 2008 by one of us (and more recently by Carle Pieters, et.al.) that a far more dynamic, seasonal and daily cycle of lunar dust formation, charging, discharging and relentless migration is being disrupted at these locations [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

LROC Narrow Angle Camera (NAC) observation M114342150L, LRO orbit 1984, December 1, 2009 [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

Juxtaposed LROC WAC mosaics of the Lassell dome formation designated with the letter "L" in the third image from the top in this posting, Figure 2 from the October 7 press release. From LRO orbital observations under different angles of incidence.  M129350040CE, orbit 4195, May 24, 2010 (phase angle 55.94°) and M147041474CE, orbit 6803, December 15, 2010 (phase angle 76.89°) [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

How to make gif

LOLA's Deep Antoniadi

LOLA Featured Image: Antoniadi Crater (69.7S, 188E); bounding (79S, 177-197E; 66S, 180-195E - 135 km), flanked by two smaller, older craters, Minnaert (l) and Numerov (r), is a transitional crater, exhibiting both a central peak characteristic of complex craters and inner ring characteristic of larger multi-ring basins. The deepest point on the Moon (-9.12 km) is measured inside Antoniadi. (Topographic data from LOLA is being used to measure the depth-to-diameter ratio of transitional craters like Antoniadi with higher precision than ever, in hope of better understanding the formation of different types of large impact structures [Sori & Zuber (2010). Preliminary Measurement of Depth-to-Diameter Ratios of Lunar Craters in the Transition Regime between Complex Craters and Multiringed Basins. 41st Lunar & Planetary Science Conference, #2202].

[Get high-res version]

Antoniadi, prominent feature of the southern farside (69.7°S, 188°E), well to the interior of the ancient four billion-year-old South Pole-Aitken (SPA) impact, is host to the Moon's lowest elevations. The 11 km crater at lower center, without, as yet, any official name, formed the Moon's deepest point, measured by laser reflection from Japan's Kaguya orbiter at 9.06 km below the global mean elevation. Rewarding Challenge: find Antoniadi where we found this LROC Wide Angle Camera (WAC) monochrome mosaic, by zooming in on the southern polar stereographic projection using the LROC WAC Mosaic Viewer. (Hint: the view above is rotated, showing the farside with the north at top [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University].

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